1. Historical Background of British Rule in India

  • Arrival and Establishment of the British:
    • 1608: British East India Company arrived as traders, with exclusive trading rights in India granted by Queen Elizabeth I.
    • 1765: The Company gained ‘Diwani’ (revenue and civil justice rights) over Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa, marking the start of British territorial power.
    • 1858: Following the Sepoy Mutiny, the British Crown assumed direct control over India until independence in 1947.
  • Formation of the Constituent Assembly:
    • Formed in 1946 to create the Constitution, which came into effect on January 26, 1950.
    • The roots of many features of Indian polity trace back to British rule and the legal frameworks established by British acts.

2. Company Rule (1773-1858)

  • Regulating Act of 1773:
    • Marked the first British step in regulating East India Company activities.
    • Established the Governor-General of Bengal, creating an Executive Council to assist.
    • Prohibited Company servants from engaging in private trade and accepting bribes.
  • Pitt’s India Act of 1784:
    • Distinguished Company’s commercial and political functions, creating the Board of Control to manage political affairs.
    • Gave British government supreme control over Company’s Indian administration.
  • Charter Acts (1793, 1813, 1833, 1853):
    • Gradually curtailed the Company’s trade monopoly, opening trade to other British merchants.
    • 1833: Established the Governor-General of India with extensive powers, centralizing British administration.
    • 1853: Introduced separate legislative and executive functions in the Governor-General’s council, including local representation.

3. Crown Rule (1858-1947)

  • Government of India Act of 1858:
    • Abolished the East India Company, transferring powers to the British Crown.
    • Created the position of Secretary of State for India and Council of India to assist with administration.
  • Indian Councils Acts (1861, 1892, 1909):
    • 1861: Introduced representative institutions by associating Indians with legislative councils.
    • 1909 (Morley-Minto Reforms): Increased legislative council size, introduced separate Muslim electorates, and allowed Indians into the Viceroy’s executive council.
  • Government of India Act of 1919 (Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms):
    • Established a dyarchy system, dividing administration subjects between elected Indian ministers and British officials.
    • Introduced bicameralism and direct elections in India for the first time.

4. Significant Events Leading to Independence

  • Simon Commission (1927):
    • Commission formed to assess Indian administration; boycotted by Indian political groups due to lack of Indian representation.
    • Recommended abolition of dyarchy and establishment of a federation.
  • Communal Award and Poona Pact (1932):
    • Introduced separate electorates for various minorities, which led to opposition by leaders like Gandhi, resulting in the Poona Pact, integrating reserved seats for depressed classes within Hindu joint electorates.
  • Government of India Act of 1935:
    • Proposed an All-India Federation and introduced provincial autonomy.
    • Created Federal, Provincial, and Concurrent legislative lists, with residual powers held by the Viceroy.
  • Indian Independence Act of 1947:
    • Ended British rule, partitioning India into two dominions: India and Pakistan.
    • Gave dominions the power to frame their constitutions, leading to full sovereignty.

5. Key Figures in Transition to Independence

  • Interim Government of 1946:
    • Jawaharlal Nehru as Vice-President of the Council and Minister of External Affairs.
    • Included leaders such as Sardar Patel (Home), Dr. Rajendra Prasad (Food and Agriculture), and Liaquat Ali Khan (Finance).
  • First Cabinet of Independent India (1947):
    • Jawaharlal Nehru as Prime Minister and head of External Affairs.
    • Other notable members: Sardar Patel (Home and States), Maulana Azad (Education), Dr. Ambedkar (Law), and Raj Kumari Amrit Kaur (Health).

6. Major Legislative Milestones in British India

  • Regulating Acts and Charter Acts:
    • Regulating Act of 1773: First step in bringing the East India Company under British government control. Established the Governor-General of Bengal and a Supreme Court in Calcutta.
    • Charter Act of 1813: Ended the Company’s monopoly on Indian trade, except for tea and trade with China. Allowed missionaries into India and promoted Western education.
    • Charter Act of 1833: Centralized power, making the Governor-General of Bengal the Governor-General of India and granting exclusive legislative powers. Ended the Company’s role as a commercial body, making it purely administrative.
    • Charter Act of 1853: Separated legislative and executive functions in the Governor-General’s council, established a legislative council, and opened up civil service exams to Indians.
  • Pitt’s India Act (1784):
    • Distinguished between the commercial and political roles of the Company.
    • Established a Board of Control to oversee the political functions, marking a shift towards British control over Indian administration.

7. Introduction of Representative and Decentralized Government

  • Indian Councils Act of 1861:
    • Allowed limited Indian representation by nominating non-official members to the Viceroy’s legislative council.
    • Introduced decentralization, restoring legislative powers to Bombay and Madras and establishing legislative councils in provinces.
  • Indian Councils Act of 1892:
    • Expanded legislative councils’ size and functions, allowing discussion of the budget and inquiries into administrative matters.
    • Introduced an indirect electoral element, with some members nominated based on recommendations.
  • Indian Councils Act of 1909 (Morley-Minto Reforms):
    • Increased legislative council sizes and allowed Indians to be members of the Viceroy’s executive council.
    • Introduced separate electorates for Muslims, leading to communal representation in Indian politics.

8. Toward Responsible Government and Provincial Autonomy

  • Government of India Act of 1919 (Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms):
    • Introduced dyarchy, dividing administrative subjects into “transferred” (handled by Indian ministers) and “reserved” (handled by British officials) categories at the provincial level.
    • Established a bicameral legislature with the Council of State (Upper House) and Legislative Assembly (Lower House).
    • Expanded communal representation, creating separate electorates for Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians, and Europeans.
  • Simon Commission and Round Table Conferences:
    • 1927: Simon Commission recommended abolition of dyarchy, increased provincial autonomy, and a federation of British India and princely states.
    • Three Round Table Conferences (1930-32) discussed these reforms, culminating in the Government of India Act of 1935.

9. Key Provisions of the Government of India Act of 1935

  • All-India Federation:
    • Proposed a federation consisting of British provinces and princely states, though it never came into effect due to princely states’ non-participation.
  • Provincial Autonomy:
    • Replaced dyarchy with provincial autonomy, allowing provinces to act independently in their defined spheres.
    • Introduced responsible government at the provincial level, making Governors work with ministers responsible to the provincial legislature.
  • Bicameralism and Expanded Franchise:
    • Established bicameral legislatures in six provinces and extended voting rights to approximately 14% of the population.
    • Introduced separate legislative lists for Federal, Provincial, and Concurrent jurisdictions.
  • New Institutions:
    • Created a Federal Court (1937) and Reserve Bank of India (1935).
    • Established a Federal Public Service Commission, Provincial Public Service Commission, and Joint Public Service Commission.

10. Final Steps to Independence

  • The Mountbatten Plan (1947):
    • Proposed partition of British India into two independent dominions: India and Pakistan.
    • Set the timeline for independence by June 30, 1948, though events accelerated this date.
  • Indian Independence Act of 1947:
    • Officially ended British rule and declared India as an independent and sovereign state on August 15, 1947.
    • Created the two dominions of India and Pakistan, granting their Constituent Assemblies the power to frame respective constitutions.
    • Abolished the office of the Viceroy, creating Governor-General roles for each dominion, and repealed British paramountcy over princely states, allowing them to join India, Pakistan, or remain independent.

11. Impact of British Rule on Indian Polity and Governance

  • Influence on Indian Constitution:
    • Many features, such as the parliamentary system, federal structure, rule of law, and judicial independence, have their origins in the systems introduced under British rule.
    • Legal and administrative foundations from the Company and Crown periods influenced the Constitution, including a centralized government, bicameral legislature, and civil service.
  • Lessons from Colonial Rule:
    • British policies of communal representation, separate electorates, and administrative control over provinces led to regional and communal divisions, impacting India’s unity and policy-making.
    • Indian freedom fighters adapted and modified these governance practices, emphasizing sovereignty, inclusiveness, and independence.